Photo from The Sydney Morning Herald
Tuesday, November 23, 2010
Abstract
War and civil strife play a significantly detrimental role in the conservation of ecosystems – its wildlife, vegetation, and natural resources. There is an inevitable interaction between natural habitats and humans whether it is here in Los Angeles or in the most remote parts of Africa. Rwanda was once globally recognized for its biodiversity and conservation efforts(Kanyamibwa, 1998). However, since civil war has plagued the nation, environmental issues have become a secondary issue as Rwandans are forced to face violence, genocide, poverty, and many more social tragedies. Volcanoes National Park is located on the borders of Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The national park is home to the highly endangered Virunga mountain gorillas that depend on this remote protected area for its habitat and resources. Despite the Rwandan government's efforts to promote the importance of the mountain gorillas, the already small population in Volcanoes National Park is highly susceptible to disturbances which come in the form of deforestation, war, and poaching (Kalpers, 2003). We can observe how Rwanda’s social problems correlate with the growth and decline of Virunga mountain gorilla populations by taking time series satellite images provided by Landsat satellites and identifying how vegetation within the Volcanoes National Park has changed over time. Despite Rwanda’s tumultuous social history, its maintenance of the Volcanoes National Park and its borders has been fairly steady. Also, the available censuses suggest that the populations of mountain gorilla have actually risen over the past two decades despite the civil war (Plumptre et al, 2001). However, the resources to verify the censuses have been limited since it is still dangerous and difficult to research in the Volcanoes National Park where conflicts still occur. By comparing data provided by satellite images, censuses, and conflict history, we can piece together an explanation as to how humans’ actions have impacted the Virunga mountain gorilla.
Photo from The Sydney Morning Herald
Photo from The Sydney Morning Herald
Introduction
Rwanda is one of the smallest countries in Africa, yet it has been highly publicized for the civil war and genocide that began nearly thirty years ago (Clay, 1998). Rwanda became one of the most densely populated African countries due to people flocking to the region for their once fertile soil (Kanyamibwa, 1998). Currently, over 90% of the population depends on the land for subsistence agriculture in Rwanda (Plumptre et al, 2001). The high density of people and the intensive use of the land are proving to be detrimental as the soil is being depleted of nutrients, no longer yielding sufficient crops. However, despite the high demand for land in Rwanda, the nation has managed to produce three major protected areas, one of which is the Volcanoes National Park (Parc National Des Volcans), the first national park to be created in Africa (Spinage, 1972).
Volcanoes National Park is home to the endangered Virunga mountain gorillas that live at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 4000 meters (IUCN, 2010).Figure 6 shows the “floral zones” at each montane level in Volcanoes National Park, where the gorillas inhabit the moist montane forest zone, bamboo zone, subalpine zone, and even the lowest parts of the alpine zone (Spinage, 1972).
War and violence were occurring in Rwanda and the surrounding areas starting in the late 80s-early 90s, and although the Volcanoes National Park is a protected area, it was not exempt from violence between humans as guerilla soldiers set up camps there while the Rwandan Army tried to defend the park from poaching and deforestation (Plumptre et al, 2001). Even the gorillas were caught in the crossfire as many fell victim to increased poaching and accidentally stumbling upon land mines (Dudley, 2000).
The Virunga mountain gorillas of Volcanoes National Park are threatened by human presences because of the violence that occurs and because of the extremely high number of people surrounding the park that use the land for agriculture. Clearly seen in an image taken from a Landsat satellite, the national park has a clear border filled with lush green vegetation, while the surrounding areas are clearly sectioned and divided for agricultural uses (see image below).
War and social conflict is the number one cause of mountain gorilla endangerment because of the combined threats that come as a result of war. People at war poach for food and money, burn down acres of vegetation to prevent an enemy from using the land, set land mines, clear forests for roads all for the sake of winning, even if the consequences linger for decades. According to Samuel Kanyamibwa of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, "the problem is crucial in less developed countries, particularly in Africa, where people are more dependent on natural resources, and where democratic conditions are not established" and this holds true for Rwanda where 90% of the people depend on the land and conflict for power is a major issue (Kanyamibwa, 1998).
These problems caused by war are not easily reversible and extremely hard to fix once the damage is done. Conserving what is left is key, especially for the mountain gorillas that inhabit an already limited area within the national park (see Weber Figure 2 below). For a nation like Rwanda who appreciated the rich abundance of biodiversity they had early on, the solution for maintaining conservation is to find social stability and good government leadership to find an end to all the conflict that is causing so many of the problems for the environment and the people. However, many argue that there are actually benefits to war in terms of conservation, but the negative consequences that come as a result are considered to far outweigh the benefits.
Volcanoes National Park is home to the endangered Virunga mountain gorillas that live at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 4000 meters (IUCN, 2010).Figure 6 shows the “floral zones” at each montane level in Volcanoes National Park, where the gorillas inhabit the moist montane forest zone, bamboo zone, subalpine zone, and even the lowest parts of the alpine zone (Spinage, 1972).
War and violence were occurring in Rwanda and the surrounding areas starting in the late 80s-early 90s, and although the Volcanoes National Park is a protected area, it was not exempt from violence between humans as guerilla soldiers set up camps there while the Rwandan Army tried to defend the park from poaching and deforestation (Plumptre et al, 2001). Even the gorillas were caught in the crossfire as many fell victim to increased poaching and accidentally stumbling upon land mines (Dudley, 2000).The Virunga mountain gorillas of Volcanoes National Park are threatened by human presences because of the violence that occurs and because of the extremely high number of people surrounding the park that use the land for agriculture. Clearly seen in an image taken from a Landsat satellite, the national park has a clear border filled with lush green vegetation, while the surrounding areas are clearly sectioned and divided for agricultural uses (see image below).
War and social conflict is the number one cause of mountain gorilla endangerment because of the combined threats that come as a result of war. People at war poach for food and money, burn down acres of vegetation to prevent an enemy from using the land, set land mines, clear forests for roads all for the sake of winning, even if the consequences linger for decades. According to Samuel Kanyamibwa of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, "the problem is crucial in less developed countries, particularly in Africa, where people are more dependent on natural resources, and where democratic conditions are not established" and this holds true for Rwanda where 90% of the people depend on the land and conflict for power is a major issue (Kanyamibwa, 1998).
These problems caused by war are not easily reversible and extremely hard to fix once the damage is done. Conserving what is left is key, especially for the mountain gorillas that inhabit an already limited area within the national park (see Weber Figure 2 below). For a nation like Rwanda who appreciated the rich abundance of biodiversity they had early on, the solution for maintaining conservation is to find social stability and good government leadership to find an end to all the conflict that is causing so many of the problems for the environment and the people. However, many argue that there are actually benefits to war in terms of conservation, but the negative consequences that come as a result are considered to far outweigh the benefits.
Methods
I focused on studying the Volcanoes National Park, located on the borders of Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Uganda. The images were either produced by using the ENVI software or obtained from websites that provided satellite images of the study area. Observing the growth and reduction of vegetation in this park over the years is important in studying the Virunga mountain gorillas' habitat as they depend highly on the vegetation for food resources and shelter.
Landsat Data
The Landsat Data is extremely helpful in creating time series images of the study area in order to see how the region has changed over time. Once downloaded, the Landsat Data could be uploaded into ENVI and used to create subsets of places of interest, density slices, NDVIs, 3D models, etc.
To obtain Landsat data, it was easiest to simply Google Landsat, which brought me to the Landsat Program page on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) site. From there I selected "Images", then "Find Your Location", and then "USGS Global Visualization (Glovis) Viewer" which used Landsat 4-5 Thematic Mapper at 240 meter spatial resolution. From there I simply searched my location and selected the images with the least cloud cover in order to have the maximum amount of area available to study. I downloaded the images if it was available for download, opened the containing folder after the download was complete, and I double unzipped the file, which provided me with the multiple bands I would use for ENVI.
I could also find Landsat data by searching "Earthexplorer" on Google, selecting the "USGS EarthExplorer: Satellite Images, Aerial Photographs and Maps" link, checking all the boxes for Landsat data I wanted, searching my study area, and clicking "search". Any available data Earthexplorer has will be pulled up with a preview of the image. However, not all images are available for download.
ENVI
Density Slices
The image above compares two density slices of the Volcanoes National Park. I obtained the data from the USGS Global Visualization Viewer which used Landsat 4-5 Thematic Mapper at 240 meter spatial resolution. Using ENVI, I did a subset of the Volcanoes National Park from the original image for 1987 and 2005. I then performed a density slice of both images to show the extent of vegetation as well as the density of vegetation. By comparing the two, it seems that some parts of the park have grown over the years while some parts have been deforested.
3D Model
This image was made using data obtained from EarthExplorer of Volcanoes National Park. The image is of the National Park in February 2005, captured by the Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus. Using the 3D Surface View tool on ENVI, I was able to make this 3D model of the national park and really show the contrast between the lowlands and the volcanoes by increasing the vertical exaggeration.Elevation Data
Using Earthexplorer I was able to download Digital Elevation Data which uses Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 1 Arc and 3 Arc Second Digital Terrain Elevation Data. Then, by using ENVI I was able to make the four images, starting from the top left image and going clockwise: Topographic, Elevation, Aspect, and Shaded Relief.
Other Data
I obtained other data through doing research on various journals, which I found using Google Scholar, as well as searching satellite imaging sites for available images on my study area. These other images were obtained through the following satellites and sensors: Landsat TM, Landsat TM5 (resolution is 28.5 ), GeoEye, IKONOS (spatial resolution of 1 meter), and Space Shuttle/SIR-C/X-SAR. I also used University of Maryland's "Firefly" application which allowed me to collect data on fires that have been recorded for the past several years near or in my study area.
Data Analysis
I analyzed the data I created on ENVI as well as the data I found on other sites and journals by comparing them and seeing whether there were any correlations between patterns that were occurring and events that were happening. For example I was able to compare the data from a population table that provided a census of gorillas per year and I could see whether there was a correlation between the decrease in population, a decrease in vegetation, and an increase in civil warfare within Rwanda and the surrounding regions. By taking historical information and comparing it to numerical data and satellite imaging, we are able to connect the dots and create a story that sheds light on how something such as war can affect wildlife.
Results and Imagery
Imagery
Figure AThe most recent satellite image of Volcanoes National Park with the least cloud cover, taken with Landsat 7 TM, clearly showing the park's borders and the contrasting agricultural land that surrounds it. Taken October 2010 and subset created with ENVI November 2010.
Figure B
This image was taken from Google Earth, which shows an aerial view of the park. The labels show the division of the park between the three countries of Rwanda, Uganda, and DRC. The cloud cover when this image was taken blocks parts of the national park from being seen.
Figure C
Figure C
Satellite image of Volcanoes National Park, taken with Landsat TM5 in 1987.
Figure D
"This is a false color radar image taken from the space shuttle Endeavor in
1994 showing the "island" of the Virunga range of volcanoes surrounded by
farmland and villages (purple areas).The faint lines in purple are terraced
fields. Photo courtesy of NASA." -Visible Earth NASA site
Figure E
1994 showing the "island" of the Virunga range of volcanoes surrounded by
farmland and villages (purple areas).The faint lines in purple are terraced
fields. Photo courtesy of NASA." -Visible Earth NASA site
Figure E
This was obtained from Satellite Imaging Corp and it compares two satellite images of the clear border of Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. The one on the left uses Landsat TM5, its spatial resolution is 28.5 meters and it was taken in August 1987. The image on the right used IKONOS satellite sensor, it has a spatial resolution of 1 meter, and it was taken in June 2006.
Figure F
Figure F
This image was made using data obtained from EarthExplorer of Volcanoes National Park. The image is of the National Park in February 2005, captured by the Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus. Using the 3D Surface View tool on ENVI, I was able to make this 3D model of the national park and really show the contrast between the lowlands and the volcanoes by increasing the vertical exaggeration.
Figure G
Figure G
This image was obtained from Satellite Imaging Corporation and it is a 3D terrain model of Visoke, a volcano located in Volcanoes National Park Rwanda. It was taken in 2007 using GeoEye.
Figure H
Figure H
The data used to make the four images above were obtained using EarthExplorer. By inputing the coordinates of the Volcanoes National Park, I was able to find the Digital Elevation Data for the region. The Digitial Elevation Data uses Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 1 Arc and 3 Arc Second Digital Terrain Elevation Data. Then, by using ENVI I was able to make the four images. Starting from the top left image and going clockwise: Topographic, Elevation, Aspect, and Shaded Relief.
Figure I
Figure I
This image shows the available fire data for the past 7 years in the Volcanoes National Park and the surrounding areas. This image was obtained from the Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS), which used MODIS and the Terra satellite to obtain fire data.
Figure J
Figure J
These images were obtained using the USGS Global Visualization Viewer which used Landsat 4-5 Thematic Mapper at 240 meter spatial resolution. Using the 323 order of Red, Green, Blue bands on ENVI, the vegetation is clearly shown in dark green, in contrast to the more bare surrounding areas. Starting from the upper left image going counter clockwise: 1987, 2003, 2005, 2010.
Figure K
Figure K
The image above compares two density slices of the Volcanoes National Park. I obtained the data from the USGS Global Visualization Viewer which used Landsat 4-5 Thematic Mapper at 240 meter spatial resolution. Using ENVI, I did a subset of the Volcanoes National Park from the original image for 1987 and 2005. I then performed a density slice of both images to show the extent of vegetation as well as the density of vegetation. By comparing the two, it seems that some parts of the park have grown over the years while some parts have been deforested.
Figure L
Figure L
Landsat TM showing Rwanda before Genocide and Rwanda after Genocide. This image may show the correlation between human conflict and loss of vegetation. This is important in studying the habitats able to sustain populations of mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park. Photo courtesy of www.Yale.edu, Genocide Studies Program.
Figure M
Figure M
The shaded areas below represent protected areas within the country of Rwanda, comparing 1990 to 2000. There is an obvious reduction in protected land on the eastern border, however, the Volcanoes National Park looks to have remained fairly intact.
Figure N
Figure N
This figure shows the location of the mountain gorilla groups and the estimated size of each group throughout Volcanoes National Park.
Figure O
Figure P
Figure O
The figure below shows the habitable areas for the Virunga mountain gorilla in the white space. Although the park itself is fairly large, there are select locations where the gorilla populations can successfully survive due to the right elevation and vegetation.
Figure P
This table shows the population estimates of Virunga mountain gorilla populations between 1971 and 2000.
Figure Q
Figure Q
This graph shows the growth and decline patterns of Rwanda from 1961 to 2003. By observing this graph, we may be able to see how the civil war and genocide correlated with the populations of mountain gorillas.
Figure R
An NDVI showing vegetation cover in Volcanoes National Park.
Figure R
An NDVI showing vegetation cover in Volcanoes National Park.
Results: Data and Image Analysis
When beginning research on the Virunga mountain gorillas and civil war in Rwanda, I sought to answer the following questions:
Is there a correlation between increase in civil war/civil strife/genocide and environmental degradation in Rwanda?
Is there a correlation between the statistics of human mortality rate as a result of civil war and genocide and the statistics of forest area or wildlife abundance?
Is there a correlation between the statistics of human mortality rate as a result of civil war and genocide and the population growth or decline of the Virunga mountain gorilla over time?
What patterns support or disprove the hypothesis that civil war is detrimental to the Volcanoes National Park?
Is there a significant difference in forest land cover before and after civil war?
These questions can be answered by simply reviewing a timeline of Rwanda's major social conflicts such as the one provided by BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1070329.stm) and then comparing it to the vegetation density over time. By creating a time series, I was able to see how change has occurred over the past two decades within the Volcanoes National Park as seen in Figure J and K. However, by studying these images I found out that the countries have been fairly good at protecting their reserves, with only a few slight decreases in vegetation in a few regions.
By studying the Density slice in Figure K, we can see that the vegetation density has within the park has definitely decreased as the red areas represent the most dense and the green areas are a little less. Although it does not seem to be a huge loss of vegetation cover, it is still very significant as small populations of mountain gorillas are highly susceptible to change. This is because the regions in which they inhabit are extremely limited as seen in figures N and O. The Virunga mountain gorilla populations took a dip between 1976 and 1986 (figure P), while the Rwandan populations were still growing as seen in figure Q. According to the BBC timeline of Rwanda, it was during this decade that there was also a large migration of Ugandan refugees to Rwanda because of civil war that was occurring there. These large influxes of people may have been a very important cause in the gorilla population decline because more people need more land for subsistence agriculture, more opportunities for money which they could get from poaching, as well as more food which they could get from poaching as well.
Figure P shows that the gorilla populations were actually growing when the civil war and genocides were taking place in Rwanda (see graphs below), but these censuses are estimates as it was too dangerous for many researchers to go out and study. However, because of the war, perhaps military forces within the park were heightened and more effective in protecting the park because it also meant protecting its borders from rebels who were camping out there from Uganda and the DRC. In Figure I, Fires are mapped out over the past 7 years and there are only a handful that occurred within the borders of Volcanoes National Park. Fire naturally would cause devastating vegetation loss, meaning habitat loss for the mountain gorilla, but thankfully many of the fires were kept of the park, probably due to high military patrolling.
By studying the Density slice in Figure K, we can see that the vegetation density has within the park has definitely decreased as the red areas represent the most dense and the green areas are a little less. Although it does not seem to be a huge loss of vegetation cover, it is still very significant as small populations of mountain gorillas are highly susceptible to change. This is because the regions in which they inhabit are extremely limited as seen in figures N and O. The Virunga mountain gorilla populations took a dip between 1976 and 1986 (figure P), while the Rwandan populations were still growing as seen in figure Q. According to the BBC timeline of Rwanda, it was during this decade that there was also a large migration of Ugandan refugees to Rwanda because of civil war that was occurring there. These large influxes of people may have been a very important cause in the gorilla population decline because more people need more land for subsistence agriculture, more opportunities for money which they could get from poaching, as well as more food which they could get from poaching as well.
Figure P shows that the gorilla populations were actually growing when the civil war and genocides were taking place in Rwanda (see graphs below), but these censuses are estimates as it was too dangerous for many researchers to go out and study. However, because of the war, perhaps military forces within the park were heightened and more effective in protecting the park because it also meant protecting its borders from rebels who were camping out there from Uganda and the DRC. In Figure I, Fires are mapped out over the past 7 years and there are only a handful that occurred within the borders of Volcanoes National Park. Fire naturally would cause devastating vegetation loss, meaning habitat loss for the mountain gorilla, but thankfully many of the fires were kept of the park, probably due to high military patrolling.
Discussion
Let's Compare Research
Although there are so many negative consequences of war, some argue that war can actually help conservation efforts. War brings awareness to what a nation has so that it knows what to protect. Rwanda is a nation that has prided itself on the biodiversity it holds within its reserves and to lose that to war would be a huge blow to the nation's economy because it is what pulls people to come visit and spend their money there every year. This may be the case with the mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park because gorilla populations were actually increasing as the civil war and genocide began. This was most likely due to heightened military response, especially within the park because it shared borders with Uganda and the DRC. The borders of the park were well maintained throughout the time of conflict in Rwanda, however when studying the borders of the park that lie in Uganda, the borders weren't so clear cut, meaning they weren't as patrolled or maintained (Kanyamibwa, 1998). Rwanda made a clear and conscious effort to protect its Volcanoes National Park and it paid off in the end as vegetation cover remained fairly steady and as mountain gorilla populations are slowly rising.
Limitations
Lack of consistent data due to violence.
It is unsafe for researchers to go into the Volcanoes National Park while there is conflict going on in Rwanda because they may get caught in the cross fire between rebels and military, they may stumble upon land mines, they may not even be allowed to enter for their own safety. Also these gorillas live in remote locations within the park and even getting to the locations without possibly running into trouble is a high risk. There are rebels who are out to prove a point as well as poachers who see researchers as hindering their opportunity to catch their target prey.
Extremely thick cloud cover.
Trying to create a time series for Rwanda proved to be a little difficult because a majority of the year there was extremely high percentage of cloud cover blocking the satellites' view of the park. This is expected however because of the significantly different climate within the park than that of the surrounding areas. There were only a handful of images that were clear enough to use for comparisons over time.
Unavailable data.
Although there is a lot of satellite data on the Volcanoes National Park, a lot of it was not available for download, but for purchase, which my student wallet definitely couldn't afford.
Useful Data
The most useful data I obtained was all of the clear Landsat images of the park over time as well as the tables and graphs on population data of both Rwandans and gorillas. Being able to find data that covered the same time frame really helped in connecting the dots and finding correlations between nature and humans. Many of the journal articles also helped to provide information on what was going on while rates of deforestation and poaching were rising and falling.
Future Research
I think the most effective future research would be to see what has worked in the past to help sustain the mountain gorilla populations and their habitats such as ecotourism. Ecotourism was a huge pull for revenue in Rwanda prior to the civil war because of the rare mountain gorillas they housed in the Volcanoes National Park. I think research to see how rates of ecotourism and rates of conservation correlate would be highly beneficial to Rwanda.
References
Clay, Daniel, et al. "Sustainable Intensification in the Highland Tropics: Rwandan Farmers' Investment in Land Conservation and Soil Fertility." Economic Development and Cultural Change 46.2 (1998): 351-377. Print.
Dudley, Joseph P., et al. “Effects of War and Civil Strife on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats.” Conservation Biology 16.2 (2002): 319-329. Print.
"Earth Explorer." edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov. U.S. Geological Survey. 10 Oct. 2007. Web. 3 Nov. 2010.
"Gorilla beringei." iucnredlist.org. IUCN Red List. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Gossling, Stefan. "Ecotourism: a means to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions?" Ecological Economics 29 (1999): 303-320. Print.
Kanyamibwa, Samuel. “Impact of War on Conservation: Rwandan Environment and Wildlife in Agony.” Biodiversity and Conservation 7 (1998): 1399-1406. Print.
Kalpers, Jose, et al. "Gorillas in the crossfire: population dynamics of the Virunga mountain gorillas over the past three decades." Oryx 37.3 (2003): 326-337. Print.
Plumptre, A.J. "The effects of trampling damage by herbivores on the vegetation of the Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda." African Journal of Ecology 32 (1993): 115-129. Print.
Plumptre, Andrew J., et al. “The Impact of Civil War on the Conservation of Protected Areas in Rwanda.” 2001. Washington, D.C.: Biodiversity Support Program.
"Rwandan Genocide Project." yale.edu. Yale Genocide Studies Program. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Spinage, C.A. "The Ecology and Problems of the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda." Biological Conservation 4.3 (1972): 194-204. Print.
"Space Radar Image Of Central African Gorilla Habitat." Visibleearth.nasa.gov. Visible Earth. 08 Jun. 2006. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
"Virunga National Park." satimagingcorp.com. Satellite Imaging Corporation. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Watts, David P. "Long-Term Habitat use by Mountain Gorillas." International Journal of Primatology 19 (1998): 651-680. Print.
"Web Fire Mapper." firefly.geog.umd.edu. University of Maryland Fire Information for Resource Management System. n.d. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Dudley, Joseph P., et al. “Effects of War and Civil Strife on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats.” Conservation Biology 16.2 (2002): 319-329. Print.
"Earth Explorer." edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov. U.S. Geological Survey. 10 Oct. 2007. Web. 3 Nov. 2010.
"Gorilla beringei." iucnredlist.org. IUCN Red List. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Gossling, Stefan. "Ecotourism: a means to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions?" Ecological Economics 29 (1999): 303-320. Print.
Kanyamibwa, Samuel. “Impact of War on Conservation: Rwandan Environment and Wildlife in Agony.” Biodiversity and Conservation 7 (1998): 1399-1406. Print.
Kalpers, Jose, et al. "Gorillas in the crossfire: population dynamics of the Virunga mountain gorillas over the past three decades." Oryx 37.3 (2003): 326-337. Print.
Plumptre, A.J. "The effects of trampling damage by herbivores on the vegetation of the Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda." African Journal of Ecology 32 (1993): 115-129. Print.
Plumptre, Andrew J., et al. “The Impact of Civil War on the Conservation of Protected Areas in Rwanda.” 2001. Washington, D.C.: Biodiversity Support Program.
"Rwandan Genocide Project." yale.edu. Yale Genocide Studies Program. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Spinage, C.A. "The Ecology and Problems of the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda." Biological Conservation 4.3 (1972): 194-204. Print.
"Space Radar Image Of Central African Gorilla Habitat." Visibleearth.nasa.gov. Visible Earth. 08 Jun. 2006. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
"Virunga National Park." satimagingcorp.com. Satellite Imaging Corporation. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Watts, David P. "Long-Term Habitat use by Mountain Gorillas." International Journal of Primatology 19 (1998): 651-680. Print.
"Web Fire Mapper." firefly.geog.umd.edu. University of Maryland Fire Information for Resource Management System. n.d. Web. 03 Nov. 2010.
Weber, A.W. and A. Vedder. "Population Dynamics of the Virunga Gorillas 1959-1978." Biological Conservation 26 (1983): 341-366. Print.
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